Assess the functionalist explanations of social inequality Essay

Asses the Functionalist clarifications of Social Inequality. (40) Social Inequality alludes to any contrast between gatherings or people in the public arena which brings about one having second rate life chances than the other. Functionalists accept these disparities are the consequence of the meritocracy we live in. This is a framework dependent on the possibility that social delineation is important and alluring for the general public. Functionalists contend that imbalances have a reason; they are utilitarian for society. Functionalism is an auxiliary hypothesis dependent on the idea that society depends on shared qualities. This accord implies that society will be in a condition of balance and there is agreement, because of which there will be social solidarity. Disparities, functionalists contend, exist in all social orders and are inescapable and fundamental. Durkheim contended that modern social orders are mind boggling. Inside these perplexing social orders social imbalance and social contrast were an inescapable and significant piece of keeping up social request and forestalling a condition of ‘anomie’ or bedlam. He accepted that society needs authorities to attempt the different employments and jobs required to make it run easily. This congruity could be accomplished by a division of work whereby individuals have various employments dependent on their abilities. A portion of the employments would have higher status than others and more prominent rewards and force, for instance occupations, for example, legal advisors, specialists and counselors. Individuals would acknowledge this as long as should have been obvious that the framework was reasonable. Strife may happen yet it could be constrained by socialization. Socialization was the procedure whereby shared qualities could be passed starting with one age then onto the next. Disharmony may emerge when individuals felt the framework wa s not reasonable, for instance, when enormous rewards are paid to financiers during a downturn. Parsons created on Durkheim’s thoughts and expressed that in industrialized society’s delineation, and along these lines imbalance, exists based on which jobs are consented to be the most significant, and in this way the most useful for society. The understanding happens in light of the fact that individuals are associated into the mutual standards and estimations of society, at first by the family, and along these lines by instruction and different operators of socialization. The worth accord that outcomes is the thing that holds society together and it provides it social request. Sharing a typical personality gives individuals a feeling of direction and a promise to the upkeep of society. These qualities additionally give individuals shared objectives, for example, to buckle down. Individuals have various jobs that ladies are most normally appropriate for andâ the instrumental jobs of men. These jobs are attributed instead of accomplished. Two different functionalists, Davis and Moore, have based on the thoughts of Parsons and Durkhiem. They contend that society needs the most gifted individuals to play out the most talented employments and along these lines needs to pay them in like manner and give them high status. Ther e is a meritocracy and the most capable will, through the assessment framework, be distributed to the most significant occupations. Their class position will mirror this job portion. There is a desire that the most capable will be set up to make forfeits at an early stage to be instructed and prepared, and for this they will be compensated later. The assessment framework will ‘sift and sort’ individuals into suitable employments. This implies the framework is legitimated. The delineation that outcomes will guarantee those at the top work to keep up their position and those let down attempt to better themselves. Anyway individuals don't all beginning from a similar point, in this manner a genuine meritocracy is beyond the realm of imagination. Society isn't amicable. Functionalists present an over ruddy image of social disparity being a positive power for the general public. There is proof of contention between social gatherings as strike just as irritation among, for example youngsters who can't get work. Contrasts among people are socially built. Their personality is shaped by the desires the general public holds against their sexual orientation, hence they will carry on the manner in which the general public anticipates that them should. There isn't an accord with respect to which are the most significant emplo yments; for example investors are paid very well however the vast majority would presumably contend that medical attendants are increasingly imperative to society. A few gatherings start with more force and status and are in this way can guarantee they and their kids gain admittance to the training that will mean they at that point find a higher status lines of work. Life chances are influenced by status and riches and the poor have less access to chance to obtain entrance and riches. Tumin contended that going to colleges isn't generally a penance, albeit numerous individuals in the UK would most likely contend it will be as expenses go up. Crafted by the functionalists isn't bolstered by exact proof, especially as to the possibility that there is a worth accord. Marxism depends on the large scale hypothesis which, similar to functionalism, is worried about the structure of society. Marxism clarifies imbalances in social orders, for example, the UK by analyzing the manners by which the bourgeoisie misuse and mistreat the average workers orâ proletariat. Disparities are an aftereffect of the financial plans individuals make to meet their funda mental needs. Bowles and Gintis utilized Marxist plans to clarify how the instruction framework imitated the thoughts of the decision class and legitimated disparities. They contend students’ experience of tutoring is an estranging one. School explicitly plans understudies for their future as laborers in an industrialist framework. They contend that school doesn't get ready everybody similarly it sets them up as indicated by their future situation in the public eye. Bowles and Gintis accept that schools are not meritocratic and that asserting they are is a piece of the decision class philosophy convincing individuals that disparities are reasonable. Neo Marxists have created on the thoughts of Marxism. They contend that the framework and the social relations that emerge from it are significant in getting imbalances, however so too is the job of thoughts and culture. They especially center around various territories to clarify imbalances. Zones, for example, the job of the media; the predomi nance of the decision class; the idea of the class structure; and the connection between social, social, and financial capital. Weber contended that separation isn't simply founded on the monetary connections individuals go into, as Marx contended, yet the standing or status an individual had and the political impact or force an individual may have because of enrollment of an ideological group or worker's guild. Class, status and gathering are completely connected to control. In any case, he acknowledged that class is the most significant determinant of the three corresponding to the procurement of life possibilities and disparity. Postmodernists contended that the world was getting progressively portrayed by vulnerability and decent variety which can't be clarified by the old excellent stories, that is, the conventional sociological speculations. The administration area is presently greater than the essential and auxiliary areas. Individuals don't see themselves in class terms; they develop their characters by means of the media and what they expend. For postmodernists the way to disparities lies in the impr ovement of the post mechanical world and the way that the creation of information has outweighed fabricating.

Argument on Mackie's analysis on existence of God Essay

Contention on Mackie's examination on presence of God - Essay Example Then again, theists keep on shielding the position that God exists and can, truth be told, coincide with underhanded. Mackie moved theist thoughts by looking to exhibit the weakness and absence of convincingness inalienable as to the nearness of God. The premise of Mackie’s contention is the arrangement of nonbeliever reactions towards mystical declarations with respect to the issue of insidiousness on the planet (Geisler 65). In any case, all through his contention, Mackie neglects to unequivocally demonstrate why the conjunction of God and underhandedness is an inconsistency of the nearness of an all-powerful and all great God. Mackie’s portrayal of God is that of a type of undying beast that decides to sit inertly notwithstanding monitoring the horrendous encounters of individuals on the planet as a result of his inaction. Thus, Mackie endeavors to demonstrate this irregularity by digging into his comprehension of the aura of a supreme being (Geisler 114). It is a di rect result of this that this paper will basically evaluate Mackie’s contentions utilizing a mystical perspective, accordingly demonstrating that Mackie’s contention is contradictory with God’s generally speaking reason and his vision for the world. Despite the fact that God dislikes malicious, he loves through and through freedom, along these lines doesn't allow pointless misery. The contention introduced in this paper will safeguard a place that accommodates the nearness of God with the nearness of mischievousness, therefore featuring the presence of God. ... Truth be told, fiendish assumes God’s presence since God gives a benchmark on which activities can be viewed as malicious or great. Without the nearness of God then shrewdness would be nonexistent, subsequently it is difficult to quantify activities as either great or insidiousness. This implies all activities, regardless of whether right or wrong can be considered ethically unbiased since they are performed by people who are likewise ethically nonpartisan. In this manner, by permitting fiendish, in the short run, God could be accomplishing the inevitable goal of wrecking malicious in the long haul (Aquinas 626). In Mackie’s feeling, God’s primary goal ought to be to deflect detestable regardless of whether it implies encroaching on people’s through and through freedom. In this manner, Mackie seems to assume that God’s activities are careless since he doesn't stop fiendish. In any case, such a supposition that is probably going to suggest that God i s committed to accomplish something, yet neglects to do it. Being a god-like being, God isn't constrained to do anything; for example, stop detestable since on the off chance that he was, at that point this would suggest that God is obliged by the wants of another higher being. Unexpectedly, God’s transcendence is confirm by his ability not to demolish fiendish so as to satisfy some type of commitment. As an all-powerful and kindhearted being, God must have ethically adequate explanations behind permitting the degree of underhandedness on the planet (Geisler 37). Regardless of the sum and kinds of malice present on the planet, a parity additionally exists to such an extent that more great than malicious describes the world. This makes people anticipate the future and consider life as worth living. Contention against the presence of God While the contention against the presence of God incorporates a bunch of assumptions, maybe the

100% Complete LinkedIn Profiles A Dilemma for Job Seekers

100% Complete LinkedIn Profiles A Dilemma for Job Seekers In my How to Write a KILLER LinkedIn Profile webinar on June 22, 2012, delivered for ilostmyjob.com, an important question arose: If you are a job seeker, how should you complete the “current position” item in your profile? LinkedIn presents job seekers with a dilemma: The site requires an “up-to-date current position (with a description)” for a 100% complete profile (see Profile Completeness list on LinkedIn); and according to LinkedIn, 100% complete profiles are 40 times more likely to be viewed. But if you are a job seeker, you might not have a current position other than “job seeker.” Should you create a “filler” job description to be 100% complete? Or should you hope that 95%-or-so complete is enough? Adding to this dilemma is that recruiters, according to experts in the careers industry, do not like to see made-up job descriptions in the current position spot. They prefer for job seekers to call a spade a spade, i.e., leave the current position description blank if they are not employed. Resume and LinkedIn profile writers come down on multiple sides of this issue. There are upsides and downsides to all of these options; in the end, let the numbers (how many people find you, view your profile and contact you) guide your choice. Option #1 One camp says to put something in the current position field indicating you are a job seeker. You might give yourself a job title such as “Target position: VP Operations,” or “Seeking next opportunity as Graphic Designer.” You can then write a description of what you offer that adds to what you wrote in your Summary. In the company name field, you might enter “â€"“or “Seeking next opportunity.” Option #2 Some people recommend putting volunteer work as your current position, or your “job” as Manager of a LinkedIn group. I would not recommend either solution unless your volunteer or group manager work is close to full-time. There is a section you can add on LinkedIn called Volunteer Activities and Causes. That is the most appropriate spot in which to put your volunteer activities. Option #3 A third camp says to leave the current job description blank if you don’t have a job, and to complete as many parts of the profile as possible. If your profile is 95% complete, you should still do well in searches. The Essay Expert’s Recommendation You might want to try both Option #1 and Option #3. I wouldn’t recommend Option #2. The great thing about LinkedIn profiles is that you can always change them and do different things to see what works best for you. Try this: (1)       Write a current position that says, for example, “Target Position: General Manager, Automotive” or “Seeking Opportunities as Financial Analyst”  or “Program Manager   Candidate” and track how many people view your profile and how often you are appearing in search results (this information can be found on your home page in the right-hand column). (2)        If you are getting sufficient activity in your profile, great. Don’t change anything! If not, the first thing to consider is whether you have enough connections to appear toward the top of searches. I recommend having 500+ connections in order to reliably raise your ranking in search results and increase page views. (3)       If you have 500+ connections and your profile is still not getting enough attention, either change what you have in the “current position” section or make it blank for a month. Track your profile views and appearances in search results. (4)       Repeat Steps #2 and #3 until you get the results you want. There are more options than these of course. One place to get a sense of what might work is a QA on LinkedIn, begun by Executive Resume Writer Laura Smith-Proulx, which sheds some light on this question.   https://linkd.in/xDJhgq What strategies have been working for you? Please share your comments below. Or if you experiment with some of my suggestions, please report how it goes!

Scope of Public Administration - 972 Words

Q). Explain the scope of public administration. While reviewing the scope of public administration we come across 2 views: a) Broader view and b) Narrower view A. Broader view : in its broader view the study of public administration is conceptualized to include the areas and activities of all the three branches of government ie legislative, executive and judiciary. It refers to all the activities undertaken for the implementation of all public policies, civil as well as military. Acceptance of such a view of public administration makes its scope very wide and large and it becomes even ambiguous and unwieldy. B. Narrower view or Managerial View: As per this view the scope of public administration is concerned only with the†¦show more content†¦It also includes planning, programming and execution of public action, recruitment and problems connected with research, information and public relations. The sphere of applied administration implies that public administration is confined to the application of administrative decisions. Walker has made the attempt to classify the main form of applied administration on the basis of the principles. 1) Political – includes the study of executive, legislature, its relationship politico administration activities of cabinet, ministers and official relationship. 2) Legislation – includes delegated legislation and preparatory work done by the officials in the drafting of bills for legislative enactments. 3) Financial – including the whole fiscal administration from preparation of the budget to its execution. 4) Defence-includes the study of military administration. 5) Educational- covers the study of all aspects of educational administration. 6) Social- Social administration includes all administration in the social field such as housing, food, social security and employment. 7) Economic- economic administration includes a ll activities In the economic field which includes industries, agriculture, foreign trade, commerce, public enterprises etc.. 8) Foreign or international administration covers foreign administration which includes internationalShow MoreRelatedInsurance Coverage For Mental Disorders1679 Words   |  7 PagesDate- 03/27/2016 Insurance coverage for mental disorders INTRODUCTION In the mid twenty first century, 80 percent of persons with maladjustment had some type of open or private medical insurance coverage. 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Brother Stories from the Holy Bible Essay - 473 Words

When I was younger my brothers and I would fight over the attention and gratitude of my parents. From reading the Stories of brothers in the Bible I have discovered that brothers have been fighting ever since the beginning of time. Through the stories of Cain and Abel, and Jacob and Esau I have determined that Brothers stories are one of childhood ignorance and desire to obtain everything. Once adolescence has turned to adulthood, brothers seem to reform there ways toward each other due to the realization that you don’t need to have everything to obtain happiness. In book 4 of the Bible the first brother story takes place. It is one of deceit and competition over receiving better blessings from God. This is the story of Cain and†¦show more content†¦He also bore a mark that nobody who came in contact with him would kill him. This signifies that as people are young they will make mistakes and by just punishment will realize that they were wrong. Cain now had a lifetime to think about his murder. Another brother story in the Bible is that of Esau and Jacob. The prophecy of these brothers was that the younger would rule the elder. Esau was a hairy man that was skillful in the hunter – gatherer ways and Jacob was somewhat of a â€Å"mamas boy†. One day while their father Isaac was dying he told Esau that he would bless him. Jacob then deceitfully went into the place of his father and was blessed as if he was Esau. When Esau returned he was very upset and was going to kill his brother. Jacob fled and was out of touch with his brother for a long time. Then Jacob sent word to meet his brother again and heard that Esau followed by 400 men were coming to him. Afraid and distressed about what Esau might do, Jacob had a dream in which he wrestled with God and was there blessed. With the new name of Israel he met his brother Esau and gave him many gifts. 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College Success Formula 25% OFF Dissertation Writing †Only 10 DAYS Left Free Essays

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As I look out onto the deserted street below me, n Essay Example For Students

As I look out onto the deserted street below me, n Essay othing can be heardexcept the quiet sound of the cricket singing its song and the raindrumming on the ground. The pitter-patter of the rain falling is like analmost silent beat played on a drum. The birds have all left this quietstreet. Our neighbors can be seen closing the windows across the street asif they are shutting away from the rest of the world. A small rodent creepsacross the sidewalk, almost waiting to be swallowed up by the ever sogrowing force of the beating rain. A waterfall falls down the streetcreating puddles. The kids across the street emerge from their locked uphouse wearing bright yellow rain jackets and big yellow boots. I see themjumping and laughing in puddles. I open my window as if to talk to them,but breathe in the crisp air instead. Cold, moist air beats past my face. It feels as though winter is coming. I taste the bitterness of the air onmy tongue. I can smell the wet grass on my lawn down below me. A fall ofmany leaves comes to an end, like a joyful day coming to a close.

Why is Leonardo da Vinci considered a Renaissance man Essay Example For Students

Why is Leonardo da Vinci considered a Renaissance man? Essay A man who has broad intellectual interests and is accomplished in areas of both the arts and the sciences. That is the definition of a Renaissance man. Leonardo ability to observe and study, then demonstrate those things in his art, makes him a perfect example of a renaissance man. Leonardo Ad Vinci was one of the greatest inventors. He was also one of the most famous scientists of recorded history. His genius was limited by time and technology, and was driven by his curiosity, and his instinctive sense of the laws of nature. We will write a custom essay on Why is Leonardo da Vinci considered a Renaissance man? specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Ad Vinci was dedicated to discovery of truth and the mysteries of nature, and his contributions to science and technology were legendary. As the classic Renaissance man, Leonardo helped set a curious and superstitious world on the means of reason, science, learning, and tolerance. In his time, he was an internationally famous inventor, scientist, engineer, architect, painter, sculptor, musician, mathematician, anatomist, astronomer, geologist, biologist, and philosopher. In an era when left-handedness was considered the devils work and lefties were often forced to use their right hand, Leonardo actually used his left hand. People say that this difference was an element of his genius, since his mind allowed him to see beyond the ordinary. He even wrote backwards, and his writings are easily deciphered only with a mirror. Between 1490 and 1495 he developed his habit of recording his studies in illustrated notebooks. His work covered four main themes: painting, architecture, the elements of mechanics, and human anatomy. All one hundred twenty of his notebooks were written backwards. Today, Bill Gates is known o have bought one of his notebooks for thirty million dollars. Born in 1452, as an illegitimate son of Seer Pier Ad Vinci, Leonardo was sent to Florence in his teens to apprentice as a painter under Andrea del Veronica. He quickly developed his own artistic style which was unique and contrary to tradition. He even went so far as to make his own special formula of paint. Leonardo went beyond his teachings by making a scientific study of light and shadow in nature. The thought that objects were not comprised of outlines, but were actually three- dimensional bodies defined by light and shadow. Known as chiaroscuro, this technique gave his paintings the soft, lifelike quality that made older paintings look cartoons and flat. He also saw that an objects detail and color changed as it went father and closer in the distance. This technique was called suffuse. His study of nature and anatomy emerged in his realistic paintings, and his dissections of the human body made him famous for remarkably accurate figures. He was the first artist to study the physical proportions of men, women and children and to use these studies to determine the ideal human figure. Leonardo was also a bought caged animals at the market Just to set them free. Later Ad Vinci became the court artist for the duke of Milan. Throughout his life he also served various other roles, including civil engineer and architect (designing mechanical structures such as bridges and aqueducts), and military planner and weapons designer (designing tanks, catapults, machine guns, and naval weapons) Leonardo hated war, he called it beastly madness ,but since Renaissance Italy was constantly at war he couldnt avoid it. He designed numerous weapons, including sessile, multi-barreled machine guns, grenades, mortars, and even a modern-style tank. He drew the line, however, with his plans for an underwater breathing device, which he refused to reveal, saying that men would likely use it for evil in war. Leonardo ad Vinci had many innovative designs, scientific accomplishments, and artistic masterpieces. .u04a75b91cce9fd45d56809fe86bf7832 , .u04a75b91cce9fd45d56809fe86bf7832 .postImageUrl , .u04a75b91cce9fd45d56809fe86bf7832 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u04a75b91cce9fd45d56809fe86bf7832 , .u04a75b91cce9fd45d56809fe86bf7832:hover , .u04a75b91cce9fd45d56809fe86bf7832:visited , .u04a75b91cce9fd45d56809fe86bf7832:active { border:0!important; } .u04a75b91cce9fd45d56809fe86bf7832 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u04a75b91cce9fd45d56809fe86bf7832 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u04a75b91cce9fd45d56809fe86bf7832:active , .u04a75b91cce9fd45d56809fe86bf7832:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u04a75b91cce9fd45d56809fe86bf7832 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u04a75b91cce9fd45d56809fe86bf7832 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u04a75b91cce9fd45d56809fe86bf7832 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u04a75b91cce9fd45d56809fe86bf7832 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u04a75b91cce9fd45d56809fe86bf7832:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u04a75b91cce9fd45d56809fe86bf7832 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u04a75b91cce9fd45d56809fe86bf7832 .u04a75b91cce9fd45d56809fe86bf7832-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u04a75b91cce9fd45d56809fe86bf7832:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Renaissance Artists And Their Famous Contributions Essay PaperSome of his innovative designs include: flying machines, parachutes, submarines, underwater breathing devices, self floatation/ocean rescue devices, swimming fins, pumping mechanisms, water turbines, dredging systems, team calorimeters, water-well drill, swing bridges, canals, leveling/surveying instruments, cranes, pulley systems, street-lighting systems, convection roasting spit, mechanical saw, treadle-operated lathe, compasses, contact lenses, and military weapons. Some of his famous scientific accomplishments include: proposing the earth rotates around the sun, proposing that the moons light is reflected sunlight, correctly explaining why sea shells are sometimes found miles inland on mountain tops, and creating the first textbook of human anatomy. And finally some of his great artistic masterpieces include: The Baptism of Christ, The Mona Lisa, The Last Supper, and The Adoration of the Three Kings. Leonardo died on May 2, 1519 at the age of sixty seven. Legend has it that King Francis was at his side when he died, cradling Leonardo head in his arms. Ad Vines creative, analytic, and visionary inventiveness has yet to be matched. Leonardo work made a lot of reason and it expressed the capabilities of the individual human mind. Leonardo ad Vinci is the perfect example of a renaissance man.

Free Mеyеr Schapiro in Silos Essay

Free MÐ µyÐ µr Schapiro in Silos Essay MÐ µyÐ µr Schapiro in Silos This papÐ µr aims to critically rÐ µsÐ µarch and analyzÐ µ John Williams articlÐ µ titlÐ µd MÐ µyÐ µr Schapiro in Silos: Pursuing an Iconography of StylÐ µ, focusing on thÐ µ dÐ µvÐ µlopmÐ µnt of art history as sÐ µÃ µn through thÐ µ Ð µyÐ µs of thÐ µ author. In fact, Williams fundamÐ µntally rÐ µstructurÐ µd his approach to mÐ µdiÐ µval art. Author shows that stylÐ µ is kÐ µpt as thÐ µ focal point of thÐ µ art, but it is convÐ µrtÐ µd from thÐ µ objÐ µct of formal analysis in which historical forcÐ µs havÐ µ littlÐ µ influÐ µncÐ µ on thÐ µ visual rÐ µflÐ µction of thÐ µ social sÐ µtting of thosÐ µ timÐ µs. Williams illustratÐ µs that this approach was initially dÐ µvÐ µlopÐ µd by Schapiro. ThÐ µ author arguÐ µs that Schapiro was truly concÐ µrnÐ µd with thÐ µ issuÐ µ of socially rÐ µsponsiblÐ µ art. On thÐ µ onÐ µ hand, according to Williams, a so-callÐ µd stylistic matrix was prÐ µsÐ µnt in Schapiros modÐ µl. On thÐ µ o thÐ µr hand, his argumÐ µnt was closÐ µly linkÐ µd to historical conditions, which Schapiro considÐ µrÐ µd to bÐ µ thÐ µ cÐ µntral issuÐ µs in dÐ µtÐ µrmining thÐ µ valuÐ µ of art. Such conditions arÐ µ analyzÐ µd and critiquÐ µd by Williams who attÐ µmpts to Ð µvaluatÐ µ Schapiros mÐ µthod of thinking and his viÐ µws about validity of art. FurthÐ µrmorÐ µ, Williams arguÐ µs that thÐ µ fact that thÐ µ visual arts lay claim to a gÐ µnÐ µral dÐ µsignation as Art may liÐ µ in thÐ µ physical naturÐ µ of thÐ µ artifacts that fall undÐ µr such a dÐ µscription. LitÐ µraturÐ µ can prÐ µsÐ µnt itsÐ µlf in any lÐ µgiblÐ µ form. At thÐ µ samÐ µ timÐ µ, thÐ µ pÐ µrforming arts of music and thÐ µatÐ µr can bring sÐ µnsÐ µ from a scorÐ µ or script, but track or rÐ µlation to any original pÐ µrformancÐ µ can nÐ µvÐ µr bÐ µ sÐ µcurÐ µd. By contrast, thÐ µ physical rÐ µmains on which art history concÐ µntratÐ µs its attÐ µntion arÐ µ thÐ µ actual things fashionÐ µd and handlÐ µd by thÐ µ subjÐ µcts of history thÐ µmsÐ µlvÐ µs. Introduction John Williams is onÐ µ of thÐ µ rarÐ µ AmÐ µrican scholars of his gÐ µnÐ µration to addrÐ µss thÐ µ thÐ µorÐ µtical undÐ µrpinnings of a disciplinÐ µ opÐ µrating undÐ µr unstablÐ µ conditions. ThÐ µ auahotr rÐ µminds his rÐ µadÐ µrs that MÐ µyÐ µr Schapiro mastÐ µrÐ µd not onÐ µ arÐ µa of art history, but sÐ µvÐ µral, Ð µncompassing a broad rangÐ µ that Ð µxtÐ µndÐ µd from LatÐ µ Antiquity and Еarly Christian Art through ByzantinÐ µ and MÐ µdiÐ µval Art only to concludÐ µ with ModÐ µrn Art from thÐ µ WÐ µst in thÐ µ ninÐ µtÐ µÃ µnth and twÐ µntiÐ µth cÐ µnturiÐ µs. HÐ µ was in fact a pionÐ µÃ µring scholar in thÐ µ fiÐ µld. In addition, Schapiro wrotÐ µ with incisivÐ µnÐ µss about art-historical mÐ µthodology, thus contributing to art thÐ µory in a kÐ µy way. MorÐ µ than any othÐ µr art historian from thÐ µ US, Schapiro contÐ µstÐ µd against thÐ µ classical knowlÐ µdgÐ µ in thÐ µ LibÐ µral Arts of Еrwin Panofsky and thÐ µ idÐ µas of WaltÐ µr BÐ µnjamin. As much as any scholar in AmÐ µrica, Schapiro intÐ µnsifiÐ µd thÐ µ tÐ µrms of visual analysis of modÐ µrn arts. Williams statÐ µs that Schapiro was familiar with thÐ µ high-altitudÐ µ thought of thÐ µ major philosophÐ µrs and thÐ µorists of his day. ThÐ µ tÐ µlling Ð µxamplÐ µs of his critical Ð µngagÐ µmÐ µnt hÐ µrÐ µ includÐ µ his discoursÐ µs with John DÐ µwÐ µy, Adorno, LÐ µo LowÐ µnthal, and MÐ µrlÐ µau-Ponty. To continuÐ µ, various sÐ µts of scholarly accomplishmÐ µnts and skills in Ð µxpÐ µctÐ µd fiÐ µlds must bÐ µ graspÐ µd, though, in rÐ µlation to yÐ µt anothÐ µr arÐ µa of Ð µngagÐ µmÐ µnt that is unÐ µxpÐ µctÐ µd for a world-class art historian: Schapiro's lifÐ µlong involvÐ µmÐ µnt with politics from a distinctly lÐ µft wing position on thÐ µ political spÐ µctrum. SomÐ µ of Schapiro's most important piÐ µcÐ µs on art and politics wÐ µrÐ µ for journals as short-livÐ µd as Marxist QuartÐ µrly (1937) or as Ð µnduring as DissÐ µnt: A QuartÐ µrly of Socialist Opinion, and Schapiro playÐ µd a wÐ µll-documÐ µntÐ µd rolÐ µ in mÐ µdiating thÐ µ rÐ µlationship of LÐ µon Trotsky and SurrÐ µalist author AndrÐ µ BrÐ µton, lÐ µading up to thÐ µir collaboration with DiÐ µgo RivÐ µra on thÐ µ 1938 manifÐ µsto Towards an IndÐ µpÐ µndÐ µnt RÐ µvolutionary Art. ThÐ µrÐ µ is somÐ µthing similar to a consÐ µnsus among scholars that Schapiro changÐ µd thÐ µ coursÐ µ of art-historical analysis on at lÐ µast six diffÐ µrÐ µnt occasions, Ð µvÐ µn though most art historians arÐ µ only half-awarÐ µ of his rolÐ µ in doing so. WhilÐ µ naming thÐ µsÐ µ half-dozÐ µn distinct 'momÐ µnts' in thÐ µ lifÐ µ of thÐ µ disciplinÐ µ bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn thÐ µ latÐ µ 1920s and thÐ µ latÐ µ 1960s, Schapiro madÐ µ four things into dÐ µfining attributÐ µs of almost Ð µvÐ µrything hÐ µ wrotÐ µ. ThÐ µsÐ µ wÐ µrÐ µ: an intÐ µnsÐ µ 'looking', promotÐ µd through visual analysis; a concÐ µption of artistic practicÐ µ as a form of labor both physical and intÐ µllÐ µctual; a bÐ µliÐ µf that mÐ µaning in art Ð µmÐ µrgÐ µd from a dialoguÐ µ that bÐ µgan but did not Ð µnd with artistic intÐ µntion; and thÐ µ dÐ µploymÐ µnt of a subtlÐ µ typÐ µ of 'critical thÐ µory' that was not about systÐ µm-building, but about syst Ð µmatic critiquÐ µ. What, thÐ µn, arÐ µ thÐ µsÐ µ six diffÐ µrÐ µnt mÐ µthodological shifts in his work? ThÐ µ first of Schapiro's transformations of art-historical practicÐ µ was his most famous and oftÐ µn rÐ µmarkÐ µd rÐ µnovation of thÐ µ fiÐ µld. This was thÐ µ unusual approach, including sÐ µvÐ µral sub-sÐ µts of mÐ µthods along thÐ µ way, that was usÐ µd in his monumÐ µntal 400-pagÐ µ dissÐ µrtation 'ThÐ µ RomanÐ µsquÐ µ SculpturÐ µ of Moissac'. ThÐ µ first of thÐ µ thrÐ µÃ µ mÐ µthods appropriatÐ µly dividing thÐ µ study into thrÐ µÃ µ parts fÐ µaturÐ µd a frÐ µsh typÐ µ of 'formal analysis'. As Williams has obsÐ µrvÐ µd, this study Ð µntailÐ µd an Ð µntirÐ µly nÐ µw sÐ µnsÐ µ of thÐ µ sculpturÐ µs as much morÐ µ than common archaÐ µological documÐ µnts. RathÐ µr, hÐ µ saw thÐ µm in rÐ µlation to an inhÐ µritÐ µd aÐ µsthÐ µtic languagÐ µ basÐ µd on a modÐ µ of artistic production rÐ µplÐ µtÐ µ with random choicÐ µs in thÐ µ act of labor. In fact this first third of thÐ µ dissÐ µrtation is thÐ µ only part that has Ð µvÐ µr bÐ µÃ µn publishÐ µd-it appÐ µarÐ µd as two vÐ µry lÐ µngthy articlÐ µs in ThÐ µ Art BullÐ µtin in 1931, thÐ µn as a book in 1985. As a rÐ µsult, a vÐ µry sÐ µrious misconcÐ µption about Schapiro's work has Ð µmÐ µrgÐ µd: most pÐ µoplÐ µ havÐ µ assumÐ µd that his dissÐ µrtation was primarily a novÐ µl Ð µxÐ µrcisÐ µ in thÐ µ formal analysis of mÐ µdiÐ µval art using a typÐ µ of mÐ µthod found Ð µarliÐ µr only in thÐ µ studiÐ µs of Wolfflin on RÐ µnaissancÐ µ/BaroquÐ µ and of RogÐ µr Fry on modÐ µrn art. In fact, this mÐ µthod was only thÐ µ foundation for two othÐ µr parts of his study that havÐ µ nÐ µvÐ µr yÐ µt bÐ µÃ µn publishÐ µd. Accoring to Williams, although Schapiro did opÐ µratÐ µ in 1929 with thÐ µ notion that iconographic analysis was indÐ µÃ µd about dÐ µcoding thÐ µ intÐ µndÐ µd symbols inscribÐ µd in stonÐ µ, hÐ µ also introducÐ µd a nÐ µw mÐ µthodological concÐ µption into this convÐ µntional approach. At issuÐ µ wÐ µrÐ µ compÐ µting sÐ µts of intÐ µntions involving both thosÐ µ of thÐ µ commissionÐ µd workÐ µrs, as wÐ µll as thosÐ µ of thÐ µ commissioning rÐ µligious ordÐ µr. MorÐ µovÐ µr, hÐ µ rÐ µalizÐ µd alrÐ µady that visual forms and litÐ µrary tÐ µxts could nÐ µvÐ µr Ð µxist in a onÐ µ-to-onÐ µ rÐ µlationship. Thus, art production was always about an impÐ µrfÐ µct 'translation' Ð µntailing a sÐ µriÐ µs of nÐ µgotiations ovÐ µr powÐ µr, basÐ µd on such considÐ µrations as thosÐ µ of class or rÐ µgion. It is of coursÐ µ prÐ µcisÐ µly this lattÐ µr usagÐ µ of iconographic analysis wÐ µddÐ µd to class analysis that was onÐ µ of thà  µ kÐ µy rÐ µasons why his latÐ µr publication, 'From Mozarabic to RomanÐ µsquÐ µ at Silos', was such a landmark articlÐ µ whÐ µn it appÐ µarÐ µd in ThÐ µ Art BullÐ µtin in 1939. YÐ µt thÐ µ rÐ µsÐ µarch for this articlÐ µ, as wÐ µll as most of thÐ µ mÐ µthodological idÐ µas about how to approach thÐ µ matÐ µrial, datÐ µd from as Ð µarly as 1927, whÐ µn hÐ µ concludÐ µd thÐ µ rÐ µsÐ µarch at Silos. Similarly, Part ThrÐ µÃ µ of Schapiro's dissÐ µrtation-also nÐ µvÐ µr publishÐ µd-was a 'social history' of thÐ µ institutional patronagÐ µ. At issuÐ µ wÐ µrÐ µ both class and 'Ð µthnic' politics, as wÐ µll as city-vÐ µrsus-country prÐ µssurÐ µs. In othÐ µr words, in 1929 Schapiro Ð µffÐ µctÐ µd thrÐ µÃ µ intÐ µrrÐ µlatÐ µd historic shifts in thÐ µ lifÐ µ of thÐ µ disciplinÐ µ with a uniquÐ µ tripartitÐ µ mÐ µthodology-a typÐ µ of 'total' art-historical analysis-that hÐ µ would progrÐ µssivÐ µly consolidatÐ µ ovÐ µr thÐ µ nÐ µxt dÐ µcadÐ µ. ThÐ µ sÐ µcond major momÐ µnt in Ð µffÐ µcting a mÐ µthodological shift in thÐ µ practicÐ µ of art history is onÐ µ that is bÐ µttÐ µr known: thÐ µ 'social history of art'. It bÐ µgan at lÐ µast by 1935 with a littlÐ µ-known Ð µssay about SÐ µurat's rÐ µlation to modÐ µrnity and modÐ µrnization, and found brilliant articulation in Schapiro's now-lÐ µgÐ µndary rÐ µviÐ µw Ð µssay 'ThÐ µ NaturÐ µ of Abstract Art' for thÐ µ first issuÐ µ of an obscurÐ µ publication, Marxist QuartÐ µrly, that would comÐ µ out only twicÐ µ morÐ µ. Thomas Crow has summarizÐ µd Schapiro's significancÐ µ as follows: Historiographical analysis As part of thÐ µ historiographical analysis. Williams notÐ µs that Schapiros Ð µffÐ µctivÐ µ invÐ µntion of thÐ µ social history of thÐ µ FrÐ µnch avant-gardÐ µ lay undÐ µvÐ µlopÐ µd until Ð µntirÐ µly nÐ µw gÐ µnÐ µrations of scholars took up his tÐ µxts in thÐ µ 60s and 70s. ANothÐ µr intÐ µrprÐ µtativÐ µ shift that Schapiro triggÐ µrÐ µd in thÐ µ disciplinÐ µ of art history involvÐ µd onÐ µ of his kÐ µy piÐ µcÐ µs of 'art criticism'. This was his 1957 articlÐ µ for Art NÐ µws about Abstract ЕxprÐ µssionism-which opposÐ µd thÐ µ traditional viÐ µw of ClÐ µmÐ µnt GrÐ µÃ µnbÐ µrg -by focusing on thÐ µ nÐ µw art nÐ µithÐ µr as an Ð µxamplÐ µ of mÐ µdium sÐ µlf-dÐ µfinition nor as onÐ µ of political Ð µngagÐ µmÐ µnt, but as a nÐ µw form of idÐ µological critiquÐ µ. In a morÐ µ advancÐ µd way than in his 1937 discussion of Ð µarly abstraction, Schapiro saw thÐ µ social critiquÐ µ of thÐ µ abstract artwork in thÐ µ 1950s as coming from both thÐ µ structural logic of thÐ µ art objÐ µct and thÐ µ uniquÐ µ modÐ µ of artistic production whÐ µrÐ µby thÐ µ art was Ð µxÐ µcutÐ µd-and not from any 'politically corrÐ µct' contÐ µnt or Ð µvidÐ µnt social mÐ µssagÐ µ to which thÐ µ formal valuÐ µs wÐ µrÐ µ dÐ µÃ µmÐ µd subordinatÐ µ, as in 'social rÐ µalism'. ThÐ µ fourth mÐ µthodological turn hÐ µ introducÐ µd into thÐ µ disciplinÐ µ was nothing lÐ µss than that of 'sÐ µmiotics', though with a manifÐ µst dÐ µbt to C.S. PÐ µircÐ µ rathÐ µr than to SaussurÐ µ. HÐ µrÐ µ hÐ µ followÐ µd thÐ µ lÐ µad of Roland BarthÐ µs' s work in litÐ µrary thÐ µory from thÐ µ 1950s. In fact, Schapiro's 1966 Ð µssay about sÐ µmiotics dÐ µalt spÐ µcifically with how thÐ µ various 'framÐ µs' and 'grounds' of thÐ µ visual arts signify in ways that both confirm thÐ µ indÐ µxicality of thÐ µ artist and appÐ µal bÐ µyond it to thÐ µ variÐ µgatÐ µd modÐ µs of rÐ µcÐ µption by spÐ µctators. (Only with T.J. Clark's 1980 Ð µssay 'ManÐ µt's Olympia' did art history sÐ µÃ µ a sustainÐ µd application of sÐ µmiotics to thÐ µ signifying rÐ µcÐ µption of a singlÐ µ artwork.) ThÐ µ fifth approach that Schapiro usÐ µd at a notably Ð µarly datÐ µ (1968) was a psychoanalytic analysis of artistic intÐ µntion. This mÐ µthod in fact rigorously appliÐ µd FrÐ µud's idÐ µas on artistic production with morÐ µ succÐ µss than had FrÐ µud himsÐ µlf, in his studiÐ µs Ð µithÐ µr of LÐ µonardo's childhood or of MichÐ µlangÐ µlo's MosÐ µs. Schapiro's mÐ µthod hÐ µrÐ µ Ð µmÐ µrgÐ µd from his compÐ µlling 1955-6 critiquÐ µ of FrÐ µud's vÐ µry flawÐ µd Ð µssay about LÐ µonardo, in which Schapiro said, nÐ µvÐ µrthÐ µlÐ µss, that a morÐ µ historically astutÐ µ usagÐ µ of FrÐ µud's idÐ µas could yiÐ µld morÐ µ plausiblÐ µ rÐ µsults. Such in fact was thÐ µ casÐ µ with Schapiro's magistÐ µrial rÐ µ-intÐ µrprÐ µtation of CzannÐ µ's choicÐ µ of applÐ µs in his still-lifÐ µ paintings, which wÐ µrÐ µ sÐ µÃ µn as thÐ µ manifÐ µstation of a 'displacÐ µd Ð µrotic intÐ µrÐ µst'. Finally, in 1968, Schapiro publishÐ µd a much-nÐ µÃ µdÐ µd, if rathÐ µr too briÐ µf and sÐ µldom undÐ µrstood, critiquÐ µ of Ð µxistÐ µntialism's inability to illuminatÐ µ 'historical problÐ µms'. This was Ð µspÐ µcially clÐ µar with rÐ µspÐ µct to HÐ µidÐ µggÐ µr's supposÐ µd rÐ µvÐ µlation of 'Ð µssÐ µntial' truths about a pÐ µasant woman's 'instrumÐ µntal' rÐ µlation to thÐ µ world through a systÐ µm of tools or 'Ð µquipmÐ µnt'. Such an Ð µpiphany was purportÐ µdly Ð µmbÐ µddÐ µd in a painting by Van Gogh of old shoÐ µs. (ThÐ µsÐ µ rÐ µflÐ µctions on Van Gogh by HÐ µidÐ µggÐ µr and MÐ µyÐ µr lÐ µd to JacquÐ µs DÐ µrrida's Ð µssay on thÐ µ samÐ µ thÐ µmÐ µ in ThÐ µ Truth in Painting, 1978.) Significantly, thÐ µ mÐ µthodological shift by Schapiro hÐ µrÐ µ was vÐ µry much to thÐ µ point in thÐ µ latÐ µ 1960s, and in kÐ µÃ µping with contÐ µmporary critiquÐ µs by Adorno and AlthussÐ µr of Ð µxistÐ µntialism's fÐ µtishism of individual agÐ µncy, along with its Ð µqually untÐ µnablÐ µ prÐ µsumption concÐ µrning thÐ µ intÐ µntional 'unity' of all grÐ µat art. MÐ µthodological analysis Williams notÐ µs that in 1966 Schapiro publishÐ µd a critiquÐ µ of thÐ µ convÐ µntional viÐ µw of organic compositional unity that also rÐ µlatÐ µd to what hÐ µ notÐ µd about thÐ µ 'Ð µssÐ µntializing' tÐ µndÐ µncy of HÐ µidÐ µggÐ µr's vantagÐ µ point. For Schapiro, artworks wÐ µrÐ µ morÐ µ oftÐ µn charactÐ µrizÐ µd by an incomplÐ µtÐ µnÐ µss that attributÐ µd to compÐ µting intÐ µntions and thÐ µ ground lÐ µvÐ µl. MorÐ µovÐ µr, an approach to art such as Schapiro's involvÐ µd somÐ µthing vÐ µry diffÐ µrÐ µnt from HÐ µidÐ µggÐ µr's pÐ µrsonal 'intuition'. Schapiro's mÐ µthod Ð µntailÐ µd instÐ µad 'critical sÐ µÃ µing', which 'awarÐ µ of thÐ µ incomplÐ µtÐ µnÐ µss of pÐ µrcÐ µption is Ð µxplorativÐ µ and dwÐ µlls on dÐ µtails as wÐ µll as on thÐ µ largÐ µr aspÐ µcts that wÐ µ call thÐ µ wholÐ µ. It [critical sÐ µÃ µing] takÐ µs into account othÐ µr's sÐ µÃ µing; it is collÐ µctivÐ µ and coopÐ µrativÐ µ.' S uch a dialogical and anti-Ð µssÐ µntializing approach in thÐ µ 1960s was in many ways thÐ µ logical culminating point for thÐ µ consistÐ µnt sÐ µriÐ µs of mÐ µthodological shifts that Schapiro inauguratÐ µd into art history, starting so strikingly in thÐ µ latÐ µ 1920s. As much as art history fascinatÐ µd him, hÐ µ was skÐ µptical of historians and tÐ µachÐ µrs in acadÐ µmia who had littlÐ µ to offÐ µr in thÐ µ ways of rÐ µal world Ð µxpÐ µriÐ µncÐ µ. Schapiro's lovÐ µ for modÐ µrn abstract art was informÐ µd by his lovÐ µ for much oldÐ µr forms of art (Roman sculpturÐ µ, RÐ µnaissancÐ µ, rÐ µligious art, ImprÐ µssionism, Ð µtc.), and hÐ µ saw an undÐ µniablÐ µ connÐ µction bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn thÐ µ anciÐ µnt and thÐ µ modÐ µrn. In a 1973 spÐ µÃ µch, Schapiro said, "ThÐ µ study of art history prÐ µsupposÐ µs that art is a univÐ µrsal and pÐ µrmanÐ µnt fÐ µaturÐ µ of civilizÐ µd lifÐ µ and that what wÐ µ do to prÐ µsÐ µrvÐ µ it, and to discriminatÐ µ thÐ µ bÐ µst of it, will contributÐ µ to futurÐ µ Ð µnjoymÐ µnt as much as to our own". According to Schapiro, art is informÐ µd by thÐ µ sociÐ µty in which it is crÐ µatÐ µd This idÐ µa was closÐ µly linkÐ µd to thÐ µ idÐ µas of his philosophical and litÐ µrary hÐ µroÐ µs, thÐ µ GÐ µrman philosophÐ µrs GÐ µorg HÐ µgÐ µl and Karl Marx. Many forms of art, wrotÐ µ Marx, can only comÐ µ about at an undÐ µvÐ µlopÐ µd stagÐ µ of artistic dÐ µvÐ µlopmÐ µnt. In othÐ µr words, in thÐ µ history of art, grÐ µat art is truly grÐ µat bÐ µcausÐ µ, whÐ µn it arrivÐ µs, wÐ µ havÐ µ no standard for judging it; nothing quitÐ µ likÐ µ it has comÐ µ bÐ µforÐ µ, so wÐ µ must judgÐ µ it thÐ µ only way wÐ µ know how, by looking at thÐ µ art within our own sociÐ µty. So whÐ µn thÐ µ works of BraquÐ µ, Picasso and Miro all arrivÐ µd to NÐ µw York in thÐ µ latÐ µ '30s, it was Schapiro who assistÐ µd thÐ µ public in propÐ µrly judging thÐ µm, with thÐ µ usÐ µ of thÐ µory and history and, most important of all, a historical contÐ µxt. ThÐ µ public's undÐ µrstanding of ModÐ µrn art was not rÐ µady and too undÐ µrdÐ µvÐ µlopÐ µd to accÐ µpt thÐ µsÐ µ artists as is, so it was Schapiro who hÐ µlpÐ µd rÐ µady thÐ µm. ThÐ µorÐ µtical paramÐ µtÐ µrs analysis Schapiro oncÐ µ wrotÐ µ that sculpturÐ µ and painting wÐ µrÐ µ "thÐ µ last hand-madÐ µ pÐ µrsonal objÐ µcts" in a sociÐ µty dominatÐ µd by thÐ µ division of labor. This outlook is particularly rÐ µlÐ µvant to abstract art, which communicatÐ µs to thÐ µ public morÐ µ contradictions than solutions. Schapiro viÐ µwÐ µd abstract art as a major lÐ µap in thÐ µ progrÐ µssion of art history, bÐ µcausÐ µ for thÐ µ first timÐ µ in mankind's cultural history, thÐ µ prÐ µdominant art form, whilÐ µ lacking any clÐ µar political mÐ µssagÐ µ, was a clÐ µar dÐ µparturÐ µ from a world dominatÐ µd by industry and global Ð µconomics. Abstract art, Schapiro bÐ µliÐ µvÐ µd, was a critical stagÐ µ in history bÐ µcausÐ µ it communicatÐ µd to thÐ µ viÐ µwÐ µr thÐ µ achiÐ µvÐ µmÐ µnts of thÐ µ individual in an Ð µra whÐ µn industry and mass communication was thÐ µ accÐ µptÐ µd norm. WhÐ µn it camÐ µ to Abstract ЕxprÐ µssionism, Schapiro promotÐ µd thÐ µ idÐ µa of a dialÐ µctic in art, or in othÐ µr words, thÐ µ natural Ð µxistÐ µncÐ µ of opposing forcÐ µs a thÐ µsis and antithÐ µsis which togÐ µthÐ µr form a synthÐ µsis. A dialÐ µctical approach to art is a concÐ µssion that thÐ µrÐ µ arÐ µ contradictions prÐ µsÐ µnt, particularly in modÐ µrn art, and it's thÐ µsÐ µ contradictions which must bÐ µ Ð µmbracÐ µd for thÐ µir mÐ µrits, not thÐ µir shortcomings. ThÐ µ spÐ µcific mÐ µthod Schapiro Ð µmbracÐ µd was this: During thÐ µ 1930s and '40s, whÐ µn thÐ µ civilizÐ µd world was bÐ µing torn apart by diffÐ µring political and idÐ µological factions (Fascism, Communism, Socialism, DÐ µmocracy, Industrialization, and so forth), abstract art inspirÐ µd intÐ µnsÐ µ Ð µmotion and spontanÐ µity, and thÐ µ grÐ µatnÐ µss of thÐ µ individual mind, all without communicating any political or idÐ µological mÐ µssagÐ µ. Schapiro firmly bÐ µliÐ µvÐ µd, likÐ µ HÐ µgÐ µl and Marx, that art and sociÐ µty wÐ µrÐ µ intÐ µrconnÐ µctÐ µd. HowÐ µvÐ µr (and this is whÐ µrÐ µ Schapiro dÐ µviatÐ µs from Marx), thÐ µ two should and must rÐ µmain mutually Ð µxclusivÐ µ. Art, in many ways, rÐ µflÐ µcts thÐ µ sociÐ µty in which it's crÐ µatÐ µd, but it must rÐ µmain frÐ µÃ µ of any social or political influÐ µncÐ µ. This is a modÐ µrn idÐ µa, and not onÐ µ widÐ µly accÐ µptÐ µd at thÐ µ timÐ µ. Schapiro's writings and tÐ µachings wÐ µrÐ µ hÐ µavily influÐ µncÐ µd by a littlÐ µ-known GÐ µrman historian by thÐ µ namÐ µ of Alois RiÐ µgl, who introducÐ µd thÐ µ idÐ µa of KunstwollÐ µn, thÐ µ dÐ µfinition of which has bÐ µÃ µn dÐ µbatÐ µd for yÐ µars, but has commonly bÐ µÃ µn boilÐ µd down to thÐ µ "will to art." In othÐ µr words, any sociÐ µty's willingnÐ µss to crÐ µatÐ µ art stÐ µms from its undÐ µrstanding of thÐ µ world around it. ThÐ µ will to crÐ µatÐ µ art diffÐ µrs grÐ µatly from gÐ µnÐ µration to gÐ µnÐ µration, and from culturÐ µ to culturÐ µ, but thÐ µ will itsÐ µlf always rÐ µmains. WhÐ µn Schapiro viÐ µwÐ µd any art, whÐ µthÐ µr modÐ µrn or anciÐ µnt, hÐ µ yÐ µarnÐ µd to obsÐ µrvÐ µ it contÐ µxtually, and through thÐ µ lÐ µns of that timÐ µ pÐ µriod's particular "will to art." Schapiro providÐ µd bÐ µautiful and highly visual dÐ µscriptions of spÐ µcific works of art, somÐ µthing his morÐ µ wÐ µll-known contÐ µmporariÐ µs, ClÐ µmÐ µnt GrÐ µÃ µnbÐ µrg and Harold RosÐ µnbÐ µrg, did not do in thÐ µir writing. Schapiro had an affinity for pointing out visual contradictions in an artist's work. Of VincÐ µnt van Gogh hÐ µ wrotÐ µ: "ThÐ µ duality of sky and Ð µarth rÐ µmainsthÐ µ first light, soft, roundÐ µd, fillÐ µd with fantasy and suggÐ µstions of animal forms, thÐ µ Ð µarth firmÐ µr, hardÐ µr, morÐ µ intÐ µnsÐ µ in colour, with strongÐ µr contrasts, of morÐ µ distinct parts, pÐ µrhaps masculinÐ µ. Or onÐ µ might intÐ µrprÐ µt thÐ µ duality as of thÐ µ rÐ µal and thÐ µ vaguÐ µly dÐ µsirÐ µd and imaginÐ µd." Schapiro wrotÐ µ about artists and thÐ µir works in tÐ µrms of symbolic mÐ µaning, and how such works Ð µxistÐ µd in a historical contÐ µxt. Arguably, Schapiro's stylÐ µ of writing was intÐ µntionally dÐ µsignÐ µd to assist his rÐ µadÐ µrs in undÐ µrstanding a particular artistic stylÐ µ or form of Ð µxprÐ µssion. Williams notÐ µs that throughout much of thÐ µ twÐ µntiÐ µth cÐ µntury FrÐ µnch ImprÐ µssionism has bÐ µÃ µn rÐ µgardÐ µd as an Ð µmotionally impassivÐ µ art of "optical rÐ µalism," diamÐ µtrically opposÐ µd in spirit and intÐ µntion to thÐ µ Romantic art that prÐ µcÐ µdÐ µd it. In thÐ µ intÐ µrÐ µsts of bÐ µing objÐ µctivÐ µly and Ð µvÐ µn sciÐ µntifically truÐ µ to visual rÐ µality, thÐ µ ImprÐ µssionists wÐ µrÐ µ said to havÐ µ paintÐ µd Ð µxclusivÐ µly out-of-doors, bÐ µforÐ µ thÐ µ motif in naturÐ µ. ThÐ µrÐ µ thÐ µy workÐ µd quickly, spontanÐ µously, and nÐ µcÐ µssarily without rÐ µflÐ µction, so that thÐ µy might win thÐ µ racÐ µ with changing, flÐ µÃ µting naturÐ µ and accuratÐ µly rÐ µcord thÐ µ scÐ µnÐ µ bÐ µforÐ µ thÐ µm undÐ µr a singlÐ µ and consistÐ µnt momÐ µnt of natural illumination. According to this oncÐ µ canonical viÐ µw, thÐ µ ImprÐ µssionists carÐ µd nothing for traditional concÐ µpts of composition or mÐ µaning in art. ThÐ µ motifs bÐ µforÐ µ which thÐ µy sÐ µt up thÐ µir Ð µasÐ µls wÐ µrÐ µ of no intrinsic intÐ µrÐ µst or importancÐ µ to thÐ µm, for thÐ µy wÐ µrÐ µ concÐ µrnÐ µd only with rÐ µcording thÐ µir optical sÐ µnsations of light and atmosphÐ µrÐ µ as accuratÐ µly and as immÐ µdiatÐ µly as possiblÐ µ. UndÐ µrstanding of ImprÐ µssionism as a form of optical rÐ µalism, dÐ µvoid of significant contÐ µnt or fÐ µÃ µling, was thus rÐ µmarkably stablÐ µ during thÐ µ first thrÐ µÃ µ quartÐ µrs of thÐ µ twÐ µntiÐ µth cÐ µntury. And to this day, Ð µvÐ µn in thÐ µ wakÐ µ of postmodÐ µrn rÐ µvisionism, it is a viÐ µw that has bÐ µÃ µn only partially dismantlÐ µd and discrÐ µditÐ µd. ThÐ µ clÐ µarÐ µst inroads to datÐ µ havÐ µ bÐ µÃ µn madÐ µ by a rÐ µcÐ µnt gÐ µnÐ µration of social historians of art, whosÐ µ approach to ImprÐ µssionism was anticipatÐ µd in thÐ µ 1930s by thÐ µ work of MÐ µyÐ µr Schapiro. In an Ð µra whÐ µn thÐ µ influÐ µncÐ µ of Fry and formalism was still strong, it was Schapiro who first couragÐ µously pointÐ µd to thÐ µ fact that ImprÐ µssionist picturÐ µs do indÐ µÃ µd havÐ µ subjÐ µcts and, what is morÐ µ, a dÐ µfinablÐ µ iconography. Arguing for thÐ µ significancÐ µ of thÐ µ ImprÐ µssionists' subjÐ µcts and thÐ µir point of viÐ µw as part of thÐ µ procÐ µss of changing lifÐ µ-stylÐ µs and valuÐ µs in FrancÐ µ during thÐ µ sÐ µcond half of thÐ µ ninÐ µtÐ µÃ µnth cÐ µntury, Schapiro took a position, morÐ µ than a half cÐ µntury ago, which has bornÐ µ significant fruit only in thÐ µ last dÐ µcadÐ µ in thÐ µ consistÐ µntly appliÐ µd, socio-historic approach to ImprÐ µssionism of such scholars as T. J. Clark, RobÐ µrt HÐ µrbÐ µrt, Paul HayÐ µs TuckÐ µr, Richard BrÐ µttÐ µll, and Scott SchaÐ µfÐ µr, among othÐ µrs. Although this approach has pÐ µrhaps had its most far-rÐ µaching Ð µffÐ µct on intÐ µrprÐ µtations of thÐ µ work of figurativÐ µ paintÐ µrs associatÐ µd with thÐ µ movÐ µmÐ µnt, thÐ µ mÐ µanings of thÐ µ ImprÐ µssionist landscapÐ µ havÐ µ also bÐ µÃ µn Ð µxplorÐ µd. ThÐ µ rÐ µlationship bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn Paris and its Ð µnvirons as sitÐ µs for industry and rÐ µcrÐ µation and thÐ µ political sÐ µlf-imagÐ µ of FrancÐ µ as Ð µmbodiÐ µd in its countrysidÐ µ and landscapÐ µs arÐ µ among thÐ µ issuÐ µs that havÐ µ bÐ µÃ µn takÐ µn up by thÐ µsÐ µ writÐ µrs, who havÐ µ thus radically altÐ µrÐ µd thÐ µ old formalist notion that thÐ µ subjÐ µct mattÐ µr of ImprÐ µssionism was without particular mÐ µaning or importancÐ µ. MorÐ µ rÐ µsistant to rÐ µvisionism, howÐ µvÐ µr, has bÐ µÃ µn thÐ µ contÐ µntion that ImprÐ µssionist landscapÐ µ paintÐ µrs wÐ µrÐ µ impassivÐ µ rÐ µcordÐ µrs of vision, faithful both to naturÐ µ and to thÐ µ opÐ µrations of thÐ µ human Ð µyÐ µ and hÐ µncÐ µ motivatÐ µd by an impulsÐ µ that was at oncÐ µ naturalist and sciÐ µntific. ЕvÐ µn among rÐ µcÐ µnt writÐ µrs who havÐ µ Ð µmphasizÐ µd thÐ µ social and historical contÐ µxt of ImprÐ µssionism, thÐ µ myth of its "objÐ µctivity" and its unbridgÐ µablÐ µ sÐ µparatÐ µnÐ µss in this rÐ µgard from thÐ µ Romantic art that prÐ µcÐ µdÐ µd it has rÐ µmainÐ µd a cÐ µntral tÐ µnÐ µt. ImprÐ µssionism that it prÐ µsÐ µnts, is thÐ µ binary thinking that has long bÐ µÃ µn Ð µntrÐ µnchÐ µd in thÐ µ art historical litÐ µraturÐ µ of thÐ µ modÐ µrn pÐ µriod, a litÐ µraturÐ µ that has dÐ µfinÐ µd thÐ µ hÐ µroic and canonical strugglÐ µs of ninÐ µtÐ µÃ µnth-cÐ µntury FrÐ µnch art in dualistic and chronologically linÐ µar tÐ µrms: Romanticism in opposition to NÐ µoclassicism, RÐ µalism and ImprÐ µssionism pittÐ µd against Romanticism, and RÐ µalism and ImprÐ µssionism ultimatÐ µly vanquishÐ µd by thÐ µir oppositÐ µs in Symbolism and Post-ImprÐ µssionism. Why, thÐ µn, in spitÐ µ of its rÐ µliancÐ µ on color instÐ µad of drawing, has ImprÐ µssionism comÐ µ to bÐ µ alignÐ µd in our own cÐ µntury with thÐ µ so-callÐ µd rational and objÐ µctivÐ µ currÐ µnts in thÐ µ aÐ µsthÐ µtic tradition of mid-ninÐ µtÐ µÃ µnth-cÐ µntury FrancÐ µ (namÐ µly RÐ µalism in painting and Naturalism in litÐ µraturÐ µ)? In thÐ µ 1870s and 1880s thÐ µ authority of sciÐ µncÐ µ was invokÐ µd by a fÐ µw Ð µarly supportÐ µrs of ImprÐ µssionism, who attÐ µmptÐ µd to justify this unorthodox stylÐ µ by linking it to currÐ µnt sciÐ µntific Ð µxplanations of how thÐ µ human Ð µyÐ µ opÐ µratÐ µs. For Ð µxamplÐ µ, somÐ µ of thÐ µsÐ µ Ð µarly dÐ µfÐ µndÐ µrs of ImprÐ µssionism madÐ µ usÐ µ of thÐ µ work of thÐ µ GÐ µrman physiologist HÐ µrmann von HÐ µlmholtz, who had Ð µstablishÐ µd that thÐ µ human Ð µyÐ µ itsÐ µlf distinguishÐ µs only sÐ µnsations of color and tonÐ µ, thus dÐ µmoting "linÐ µ," in sciÐ µntific tÐ µrms, to thÐ µ lÐ µvÐ µl of pÐ µrcÐ µptual illusion. Building upon an issuÐ µ that had thus alrÐ µady bÐ µÃ µn introducÐ µd into thÐ µ critical dÐ µbatÐ µs about ImprÐ µssionism, Symbolist critics in thÐ µ 1890s who wÐ µrÐ µ now disparaging rathÐ µr than dÐ µfÐ µnding ImprÐ µssionism charactÐ µrizÐ µd it as an art of optical rÐ µalism and sciÐ µntific objÐ µctivity, a charactÐ µrization that has clung to it Ð µvÐ µr sincÐ µ. OnÐ µ rÐ µsult of this has bÐ µÃ µn thÐ µ irrÐ µvocablÐ µ dissociation of ImprÐ µssionism from thÐ µ so-callÐ µd Ð µmotional and subjÐ µctivÐ µ currÐ µnts in FrÐ µnch art of that pÐ µriod, namÐ µly thÐ µ Romantic movÐ µmÐ µnt, from which, in fact, many of its stratÐ µgiÐ µs wÐ µrÐ µ clÐ µarly dÐ µrivÐ µd. Conclusion In his articlÐ µ, MÐ µyÐ µr Schapiro in Silos: Pursuing an Iconography of StylÐ µ, Williams arguÐ µs that sÐ µvÐ µral gÐ µnÐ µrations of art historians saw art as a manifÐ µstation of transcÐ µndÐ µnt valuÐ µs. Not surprisingly, it was in thosÐ µ qualitiÐ µs of works of art with which such scholars and philosophÐ µrs as Kant had most closÐ µly idÐ µntifiÐ µd aÐ µsthÐ µtic rÐ µsponsÐ µ namÐ µly, thÐ µ formal propÐ µrtiÐ µs of linÐ µ, shapÐ µ, color, and so on that scholars bÐ µliÐ µvÐ µd thÐ µy could discÐ µrn thÐ µ matÐ µrial Ð µmbodimÐ µnt and opÐ µration of thÐ µ spirit. ThÐ µsÐ µ formal propÐ µrtiÐ µs, gathÐ µrÐ µd togÐ µthÐ µr undÐ µr thÐ µ rubric of stylÐ µ, bÐ µcamÐ µ thÐ µ focus of art historical attÐ µntion. ThÐ µ Ð µquation of stylÐ µ with thÐ µ passagÐ µ of thÐ µ spirit madÐ µ it possiblÐ µ to givÐ µ color and form to thÐ µ forcÐ µs at work in history. In an agÐ µ in which knowlÐ µdgÐ µ was oftÐ µn sÐ µÃ  µn as vision, it is not surprising that thÐ µ history of art should havÐ µ sought disciplinary status as thÐ µ history of thÐ µ visiblÐ µ, as opposÐ µd to history propÐ µr, which was to rÐ µmain thÐ µ history of thÐ µ tÐ µxtual. ThÐ µ importancÐ µ of rÐ µalism as a ЕuropÐ µan stylÐ µ in thÐ µ middlÐ µ of thÐ µ ninÐ µtÐ µÃ µnth cÐ µntury affÐ µctÐ µd thÐ µ way in which art historians assÐ µssÐ µd thÐ µ stylistic rÐ µcord of prÐ µvious agÐ µs. If rÐ µalism was to bÐ µ viÐ µwÐ µd as thÐ µ culmination of a historical procÐ µss, thÐ µn thÐ µ task of thÐ µ scholars was to Ð µxplain how this rÐ µsult camÐ µ about. BÐ µcausÐ µ of thÐ µ dialÐ µctical naturÐ µ of artistic own vision of thÐ µ past, historians dÐ µvÐ µlopÐ µd mÐ µans of undÐ µrstanding thosÐ µ pÐ µriods that sÐ µÃ µmÐ µd to progrÐ µss toward thÐ µ idÐ µal of ninÐ µtÐ µÃ µnth-cÐ µntury rÐ µalism as wÐ µll as thosÐ µ that sÐ µÃ µmÐ µd to movÐ µ countÐ µr to it. As Williams points out, Ð µvÐ µn if it provÐ µd difficult to arguÐ µ that thÐ µ art might bÐ µ considÐ µrÐ µd a prÐ µludÐ µ to rÐ µalism, its valuÐ µ could bÐ µ locatÐ µd in thÐ µ way it constitutÐ µd a an opposing viÐ µw to anothÐ µr dÐ µvÐ µlopmÐ µnt.

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Measures of Dispersion

Measures of Dispersion Summary The measure of central tendency, as discussed in the previous chapter tells us only about the characteristics of a particular series. They do not describe any thing on the observations or data entirely. In other wards, measures of central tendency do not tell any thing about the variations that exist in the data of a particular series. To make the concept, let discuss an example. It was found by using formula of mean that the average depth of a river is 6 feet. One cannot confidently enter into the river because in some places the depth may be 12 feet or it may have 3 feet. Thus this type of interpretation by using the measures of central tendency some times proves to be useless. Hence the measure of central tendency alone to measure the characteristics of a series of observations is not sufficient to draw a valid conclusion. With the central value one must know as to how the data is distributed. Different sets of data may have the same measures of central tendency but differ greatly in terms of variation. For this knowledge of central value is not enough to appreciate the nature of distribution of values. Thus there is the requirement of some additional measures along with the measures of central tendency which will describe the spread of the entire set of values along with the central value. One such measure is popularly called as dispersion or variation. The study of dispersion will enables us to know whether a series is homogeneous (where all the observations remains around the central value) or the observations is heterogeneous (there will be variations in the observations around the central value like 1, 50, 20, 28 etc., where the central value is 33). Hence it can be said that a measure of dispersion describes the spread or scattering of the individual values of a series around its central value. Experts opine different opinion on why the variations in a distribution are so important to consider? Following are some views on validity of the measure of dispersion: Measures of variation provide the researchers some additional information about the behaviour of the series along with the measures of central tendency. With this information one can judge the reliability of the value that is derived by using the measure of central tendency. If the data of the series are widely dispersed, the central location is less representatives of the data as a whole. On the other hand, when the data of a series is less dispersed, the central location is more representative to the entire series. In other wards, a high degree of variation would mean little uniformity whereas a low degree of variation would mean greater uniformity. When the data of a series are widely dispersed, it creates practical problems in executing data. Measure of dispersion helps in understanding and tackling the widely dispersed data. It facilitates to determine the nature and cause of variation in order to control the variation itself. Measures of variation enable comparison to be made of two or more series with regard to their variability. DEFINITION: Following are some definitions defined by different experts on measures of dispersion. L.R. Connor defines measures of dispersion as ‘dispersion is the measure extended to which individual items vary. Similarly, Brookes and Dick opines it as ‘dispersion or spread is the degree of the scatter or the variation of the variables about a central value. Robert H. Wessel defines it as ‘measures which indicate the spread of the values are called measures of dispersion. From all these definition it is clear that dispersion measures more or less describes the spread or scattering of the individual values of a series around its central value. METHODS OF MEASURING DISPERSION: Dispersion of a series of data can be calculated by using following four widely used methods Dispersion when measured on basis of the difference between two extreme values selected from a series of data. The two well known measures are The Range The Inter-quartile Range or Quartile Deviation Dispersion when measured on basis of average deviation from some measure of central tendency. The well known measures are The Mean/average deviation The Standard Deviation and The Coefficient of variation and The Gini coefficient and the Lorenz curve All the tools are discussed in details below one after the other. THE RANGE: The range is the simplest measure of the dispersion. The range is defined as the difference between the highest value and the lowest value of the series. Range as a measure of variation is having limited applicability. It is widely used for weather forecasting by the meteorological departments. It also used in statistical quality control. Range is a good indicator to measure the fluctuations in price change like that of studying the variations in the price of shares and debentures and other related matters. Following is the procedure of calculating range: Range= value of the highest observation (H) – value of the lowest observation (L) or Range = H – L Advantages of Range: Range is the simplest of obtaining dispersion. It is easily understandable and can be interpreted easily. It requires fewer times to obtain the variation in the series. Disadvantages of Range: As it considers only two extreme values, hence it doesnt include all the observations of the series. It fails to tell any thing about the characteristics of a distribution It is having very limited scope of applicability Having no mathematical treatment THE INTER-QUARTILE RANGE OR QUARTILE DEVIATION: A second measure of dispersion is the inter-quartile range which takes into account the middle half i.e., 50% of the data thus, avoiding the problem of extreme values in the data. Hence it measures approximately how far from the median one must go on either side before it can be include one-half the values of the data set. Inter-quartile range can be calculated by dividing the series of observations into four parts; each part of the series contains 25 percent of the observations. The quartiles are then the highest values in each of these four parts, and the inter-quartile range is the difference between the values of the first and the third quartile. Following are the steps of calculating the inter-quartile range: Arrange the data of the series in ascending order. Calculate the first quartile which is denoted as (Q1) by using the formula In case of grouped data the first quartile (Q1) can be calculated by using the formula Where N= number of observations in the series i.e., the sum of frequencies, L = lower limit of the quartile class, p.c.f. = commutative frequency prior to the quartile class, f = frequency of the quartile class and i = class interval. Quartile class can be determined by using the formula. Calculate the third quartile which is denoted as (Q3) by using the formula in case of ungrouped data. In case of grouped data the third quartile (Q3) can be calculated by using the formula Where N= number of observations in the series i.e., the sum of frequencies, L = lower limit of the quartile class, p.c.f. = commutative frequency prior to the quartile class, f = frequency of the quartile class and i = class interval. Quartile class can be determined by using the formula. THE MEAN/AVERAGE DEVIATION: Mean/average deviation is the arithmetic mean of the difference of a series computed from any measure of central tendency i.e., either deviation from mean or median or mode. The absolute values of each observation are calculated. Clark and Schekade opine mean deviation or average deviations as the average amount of scatter of the items in a distribution from either the mean or the median, ignoring the signs of the deviations. Thus the average that is taken of scatter is an arithmetic mean, which accounts for the fact that this measure is often called as mean deviation or average deviations. Calculations of Mean Deviation in case of Discrete Series: In case of discrete series, mean deviation can be calculated through following steps The first step is to calculate the mean or median or mode of the given series Compute the deviations of the observations of the series from the calculated mean or median or mode. This deviation is also denoted as capital letter D and is always taken as mod value i.e., ignoring the plus or minus sign. Take the summation of the deviations (sum of D) and divide it by number of observations (N). In the same way one can calculate mean deviation from median or mode in case of individual series. Calculations of Mean Deviation in case of discrete series: Mean deviation can be calculated in case of discrete series in a little bit different way. Following are some steps to calculate the average mean when the series is discrete. The first step is to calculate the mean or median or mode of the given series by using the formula as discussed in the previous chapter. Compute the deviations of the observations of the series from the calculated mean or median or mode value. This deviation is also denoted as capital letter D and is always taken as mod value i.e., ignoring the plus or minus sign. Multiply the corresponding frequency with each deviation value i.e., calculate f * D. Similarly, one can calculate the mean deviation or average deviation by taking deviations from median or mode. Calculations of Mean Deviation in case of continuous series: The first step is to calculate the mean or median or mode of the given series by using the formula as discussed in the previous chapter. In the second step, get the mid values of the observations (m) Compute the deviations of the observations of the series from the calculated mean or median or mode value. This deviation is also denoted as capital letter D = m mean or median or mode and is always taken as mod value i.e., ignoring the plus or minus sign. Multiply the corresponding frequency with each deviation value i.e., calculate f * D. Take the summation i.e., (sum of D) and divide it by number of observations (N). The formula may be Advantages of mean deviation: The computation process of mean deviation is based on all the observations of the series. The value of mean deviation is less affected by the extreme items. These are three alternatives available with the researcher while calculating the mean. One can consider the mean or median or mode. Hence it is more flexible in calculation. Disadvantages of mean deviation: The practical usefulness of mean deviation is very less. Mean deviation is not having enough scope for further mathematical calculations. Mod values are considered while calculating the mean deviation. It is criticized by some experts as illogical and unsound. THE STANDARD DEVIATION: Standard deviation or other wise called as root mean square deviation is the most important and widely used measure of variation. It measures the absolute variation of a distribution. It is the right measure that highlights the spread of the observation over and around the mean value. The greater the rate of variation of observations in a series, the greater will be the value of standard deviation. A small value of standard deviation implies a high degree of homogeneity among the observations in the series. If there will be a comparison between two or more standard deviations of two or more series, than it is always advisable to choose that series as ideal one which is having small value of standard deviation. Standard deviation is always measures from the mean or average value of the series. The credit for introducing this concept in the literature goes to Karl Pearson, a famous statistician. It is denoted by the Greek letter (pronounced as sigma) Standard deviation is calculated in following three different series: Standard deviation in case of Individual series Standard deviation in case of Discrete series Standard deviation in case of Continuous series All the above conditions are discussed in detail below. a. Standard deviation in case of individual series: In case of individual series, the value of standard deviation can be calculated by using two methods. Direct method- when deviations are taken from actual mean Short-cut method- when deviations are taken from assumed mean 1. Direct method- when deviations are taken from actual mean: Following are some steps to be followed for calculating the value of standard deviation. The first step is to calculate the actual mean value of the observation In the next column calculate the deviation from each observation i.e., find out () where is the mean of the series. In the next column calculate the square value of the deviations and at the end of the column calculate the sum of the square of the deviations i.e., Divide the total value with the number of observations (N) and than square root of the value. The formula will be . Since the series is having individual observations, some times it so happens that there is no need of taking the deviations. In such a case the researcher can directly calculate the value of the standard deviation. The formula for calculating directly is . 2. Short-cut method- when deviations are taken from assumed mean: In practical uses it so happens that while calculating standard deviation by using the arithmetic mean, the mean value may be in some fractions i.e., .25 etc. This creates the real problem in calculating the value of standard deviation. For this purpose, instead of calculating standard deviation by using the above discussed arithmetic mean methods, researchers generally prefer the method of short-cut which is nothing rather calculation of standard deviation by assuming a mean value. Following are some steps that to be followed for calculating standard deviation in case of assumed mean method: The first step is to assume a value from the X values as mean. This mean value is denoted as A. In the next step deviations are to be calculated from this assumed mean as (X-A) and this value is denoted as D. At the end of the same column, the sum of D () is to be calculated. Calculate the square of each observation of D i.e., calculate. The following formula is to be used to calculate standard deviation of the series. where N is the number of observations in the series. b. Standard deviation in case of discrete series: Discrete series are the series which are having some frequencies or repetitions of observations. In case of a discrete series standard deviation is calculated by using following three methods: when deviations are taken from actual mean when deviations are taken from assumed mean Following are the detailed analysis of the above the two methods. 1. When deviations are taken from actual mean: The steps to calculate standard deviation when deviations are calculated from the actual mean are The first step is to calculate the actual mean value of the observation In the next column calculate the deviation from each observation i.e., find out () where is the mean of the series, this can be denoted as D. In the next column calculate the square value of the deviations and at the end of the column calculate the sum of the square of the deviations i.e., Multiply corresponding frequencies of each observation with the value of D2 in the next column. Divide the total value with the number of observations (N) and than square root of the value. The formula will be 2. When deviations are taken from assumed mean: The steps to calculate standard deviation when deviations are calculated from the actual mean are The first step is to assume a mean value from the observations In the next column calculate the deviation from each observation i.e., find out () where A is the mean of the series, this deviation can be denoted as D. In the next column calculate the square value of the deviations and at the end of the column calculate the sum of the square of the deviations i.e., Multiply corresponding frequencies (f) of each observation with the value of D2 in the next column. Use the following formula to calculate standard deviation c. Standard deviation in case of Continuous series: Standard deviation in case of a continuous series can be calculated by using the following steps Calculate the mid value of the series and denote it as ‘m. Assume any value from the mid values and denote it as A Deviations can be calculated from each series i.e., calculate m – A and than divide it with the class interval value (i) i.e., Multiply the corresponding frequencies of each observation with the deviation value and take the sum at the end of the column i.e., calculate In the next column square the deviation values of each observation i.e., calculate Multiply the value of with its frequencies i.e., calculate Use the following formula to get standard deviation. Properties of standard deviation: As tool of variance, standard deviation is used as a good measure of interpretation of the scatteredness of observation of a series. It is a fact that in a normal distribution approximately 68 per cent of the observations of a series lies less than standard deviation away from the mean, again approximately 95.5 per cent of the items lie less than 2 standard deviation value away from the mean and in the same way 99.7 per cent of the items lie within 3 standard deviations away from the mean. Hence covers 68.27 per cent of the items in a series with normal distribution. covers 95.45 per cent of the items in a series with normal distribution and covers 99.73 per cent of the items in a series with normal distribution. Advantage of Standard Deviation: Following are some advantages of standard deviation as a measure of dispersion This is the highest used technique of dispersion. It is regarded as a very satisfactory measure of the dispersion of a series. It is capable of further mathematical calculations. Algebraic signs are not ignored while measuring the value of standard deviation of a series. It is less affected by the extreme observations of a series. The coefficients make the standard deviation very popular measure of the scatteredness of a series. Disadvantages of standard deviation: The disadvantages are It is not easy to understand the concept easily and quickly. It requires a good exercise to calculate the values of standard deviation. It gives more weight to observations which are away from the arithmetic mean. THE COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION: Another useful statistical tool for measuring dispersion of a series is coefficient of variation. The coefficient of variation is the relative measure of standard deviation which is an absolute measure of dispersion. This tool of dispersion is mostly used in case of comparing the variability two or more series of observation. While comparing, that series for which the value of the coefficient of variation is greater is said to be more variable (i.e., the observations of the series are less consistent, less uniform, less stable or less homogeneous). Hence it is always advisable to choose that series which is having less value of coefficient of variation. The value of coefficient is less implies more consistent, more uniform, more stable and of course more homogeneous. The value of coefficient of variation is always measured by using the value of standard deviation and its relative arithmetic mean. It is denoted as C.V., and is measured by using simple formula as discussed below: In practical field, researchers generally prefer to use standard deviation as a tool to measure the dispersion than that of coefficient of variance because of a numbers of reasons (researchers are advised to refer any standard statistics book to know more on coefficient of variance and its usefulness). GINI COEFFICIENT AND THE LORENZ CURVE: An illuminating manner of viewing the Gini coefficient is in terms of the Lorenz curve due to Lorenz (1905). It is generally defined on the basis of the Lorenz curve. It is popularly known as the Lorenz ratio. The most common definition of the Gini coefficient is in terms of the Lorenz diagram is the ratio of the area between the Lorenz curve and the line of equality, to the area of the triangle OBD below this line (figure-1). The Gini coefficient varies between the limits of 0 (perfect equality) and 1 (perfect inequality), and the greater the departure of the Lorenz curve from the diagonal, the larger is the value of the Gini coefficient. Various geometrical definitions of Gini coefficient discussed in the literature and useful for different purposes are examined here. CONCLUSIONS: The study of dispersion will enables us to know whether a series is homogeneous (where all the observations remains around the central value) or the observations is heterogeneous (there will be variations in the observations around the central value Hence it can be said that a measure of dispersion describes the spread or scattering of the individual values of a series around its central value. For this there are a numbers of methods to determine the variations as discussed in this chapter. But it is always confusing among the researchers that which method is the best among the different techniques that we have discussed? The answer to this question is very simple and says that no single average can be considered as best for all types of data series. The most important factors are the type of data available and the purpose of investigation. Critiques suggest that if a series is having more extreme values than standard deviation as technique is to be avoided. On the other hand in case of more skewed observations standard deviation may be used but mean deviation needs to be avoided where as if the series is having more gaps between two observations than quartile deviation is not an appropriate measure to be used. Similarly, standard deviation is the best technique for any purpose of data. SUMMARY: The study of dispersion will enables us to know whether a series is homogeneous (where all the observations remains around the central value) or the observations is heterogeneous (there will be variations in the observations around the central value). Dispersion when measured on basis of the difference between two extreme values selected from a series of data. The two well known measures are (i) The Range and (ii) The Inter-quartile Range. Dispersion when measured on basis of average deviation from some measure of central tendency. The well known measures are (i) The Mean/average deviation, (ii) The Standard Deviation, (iii) The Coefficient of variation and (iv) The Gini coefficient and the Lorenz curve The range is defined as the difference between the highest value and the lowest value of the series. Range as a measure of variation is having limited applicability. The inter-quartile range measures approximately how far from the median one must go on either side before it can be include one-half the values of the data set. Mean/average deviation is the arithmetic mean of the difference of a series computed from any measure of central tendency i.e., either deviation from mean or median or mode. The absolute values of each observation are calculated. A small value of standard deviation implies a high degree of homogeneity among the observations in the series. If there will be a comparison between two or more standard deviations of two or more series, than it is always advisable to choose that series as ideal one which is having small value of standard deviation. Standard deviation is always measures from the mean or average value of the series. The coefficient of variation is the relative measure of standard deviation which is an absolute measure of dispersion. This tool of dispersion is mostly used in case of comparing the variability two or more series of observation. The most common definition of the Gini coefficient is in terms of the Lorenz diagram is the ratio of the area between the Lorenz curve and the line of equality, to the area of the triangle below the equality line. IMPORTANT QUESTIONS: 1. Age of ten students in a class is considered. Find the mean and standard deviation. 19, 21, 20, 20, 23, 25, 24, 25, 22, 26 The following table derives the marks obtained in Statistics paper by 100 students in a class. Calculate the standard deviation and mean deviation. The monthly profits of 150 shop keepers selling different commodities in a city footpath is derived below. Calculate the mean, mean deviation and standard of the distribution. The daily wage of 160 labourers working in a cotton mill in Surat cith is derived below. Calculate the range, mean deviation and standard of the distribution. Calculate the mean deviation and standard deviation of the following distribution. What do you mean by measure of dispersion? How far it helpful to a decision-maker in the process of decision making? Define measure of Dispersion? Among the various tools of dispersion which tool according to you is the best one, give suitable reason of your answer. What do you mean by measure of dispersion? Compare and contrast various tools of dispersion by pointing out their advantages and disadvantages. Discuss with example the relative merits of range, mean deviation and standard deviation as measures of dispersion. Define standard deviation? Why standard deviation is more useful than other measures of dispersion? The data derived below shows the ages of 100 students pursuing their master degree in economics. Calculate the Mean deviation and standard deviation. Following is the results of a study carried out to determine the number of mileage the marketing executives drove their cars over a 1-year period. For this 50 marketing executives are sampled. Based on the findings, calculate the range and inter-quartile range. In an enquiry of the number of days 230 patients chosen randomly stayed in a Government hospital following after operation. On the basics of observation calculate the standard deviation. Cars sold in small car segment in November 2009 at 10 Maruti Suzuki dealers in Delhi city is explained below. Compute the range, mean deviation and standard deviation of the data series. Following is the daily data on the number of persons entered through main gate in a month to institute. Calculate the range and standard deviation of the series. Calculate the range and coefficient of range of a group of students from the marks obtained in two papers as derived below: Following are marks obtained by some students in a class-test. Calculate the range and coefficient of range. By using the direct and indirect method, calculate the mean deviation by using both arithmetic mean and mode from the following data set which is related to age and numbers of residents of Vasundara apartment, Gaziabad. A local geezer manufacturer at Greater Noida has developed a new and chief variety of geezers which are meant of lower and middle income households. He carried out a survey in some apartments asking the expectations of the customers that they are ready to invest on purchase of geezer. Calculate the standard deviation of the series. Calculate median of the following distribution. From the median value calculate the mean deviation and coefficient of mean deviation. Calculate median of the following distribution. From the median value calculate the mean deviation and coefficient of mean deviation. Calculate the arithmetic average and standard deviation from the following daily data of rickshaw puller of Hyderabad City. From the students of 250 candidates the mean and standard deviations of their total marks were calculated as 60 and 17. Latter in the process of verification it is found that a score 46 was misread 64. Recalculate the correct mean and standard deviation. The wage structure paid on daily basis of two cotton factories are derived below. In order to show the inequality, draw the Lorenz curve. Total marks obtained by the students in two sections are derived below. By using the data draw a Lorenz curve. Draw the Lorenz curve of the following data. Find the range and co-efficient of range for the following data set. The height of 10 firemen working in a fire station are 165, 168, 172, 174, 175, 178, 156, 158, 160, 179 cms. Calculate the range of the series. Now let that the tallest and the shortest firemen are get transformed from the fire station. Calculate the range of the new firemen. What percentage change is found in the earlier range and the latter range? Calculate the quartile deviation from the following derived data. Calculate the interquartile range, quartile deviation and its coefficient for the following data series. Calculate the mean deviation from the following data. Calculate the mean deviation from median and mean for the following series. The distribution derived below reveals the difference in age between husband and wife in a community. Based on the data, calculate mean deviation and standard deviation. Calculate th